Minerals as Symbols
Stone signifies first and foremost Christ Himself. This was said already by the prophets. The fourth kingdom that King Nebuchadnezzar saw in a dream, in the form of an idol of iron and clay, represented the Roman Empire. The stone cut from the mountain, which struck that idol and ground it to dust, prefigured Christ, the founder of a new kingdom above kingdoms, which “shall never be destroyed,” according to the far-seeing prophecy of Daniel (Dan. 2:44).
The great Isaiah calls Christ a stone of stumbling — “a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense… and many shall stumble on it, and fall, and be broken… a chosen stone, a cornerstone, precious, a sure foundation; he that believes shall not be confounded” (Isa. 8:14; 28:16; cf. Rom. 9:33). Such a Stone God set on Zion, His holy mountain, to be the foundation of a new, imperishable kingdom — the Christian kingdom.
Wonderful is that Stone, and terrible as well: wonderful for those who receive Him, and terrible for those who reject Him.
More fearsome words did gentle Christ never utter than when He said: “Everyone who falls on that stone will be broken to pieces; but on whomever it falls, it will crush him” (Lk. 20:18). With those dread words He warned all builders — builders of a soul, of a household, of a society, of a nation, of a state, of mankind — that they must not and cannot build apart from Him, the Corner-Stone. Theophylact of Ohrid says: “The Jews were crushed (by that stone) like chaff and scattered over the whole world. But observe how they first fell upon that stone — that is, took offense — and afterwards how the stone fell upon them and punished them.” (Theophylact, Commentary on Luke.)
Since stone symbolizes Christ, it simultaneously symbolizes firm faith in Christ. When the Apostle Peter confessed his faith in the Lord, saying, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God,” the Lord answered him: “You are Peter (and Peter means stone), and on this stone I will build my Church,” that is, on this faith which you have now expressed. And that same “little Stone” (Peter) in his epistle calls the faithful “living stones,” saying: “Coming to Him (Jesus) as to a living stone… you also, as living stones, be built up a spiritual house” (1 Pet. 2:4–5). For all who are baptized into Christ have put on Christ and have become like Christ. On that account the Apostle gives Christians a Christ-name: living stones. The multitude of stones in the world symbolizes the multitude of the faithful from the world’s beginning to its end, in accord with God’s promise to Abraham that his descendants by true faith would be “as the sand which is upon the seashore” (Gen. 22:17).
Those who build their life upon Christ as the steadfast stone are called wise in the Gospel, while those who build on sand are called foolish. The building of the wise stands and endures, but the building of the foolish falls and is ruined by winds and storms. In most ancient times men fell away from God and conceived to build a tower up to heaven. They began to build it of dried earth — brick. But God scattered their building, because it was not upon the stone — upon the stone of faith — but upon the sand and mud of unbelief; in other words, it was not on faith in God but on faith in man. Thus has it always been, and thus it shall forever be, that every construction not raised in the name of the true God and on faith in Him is scattered. Sand, then, is a symbol of inconstancy and weakness.
Gold is a symbol of truth. The Eastern Magi brought to the newborn King gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. Chrysostom interprets these gifts as: knowledge of the truth, obedience, and love. Gold does not change; it does not deceive. What it is in a royal crown, the same it is in earth, in water, in fire — ever the same. Hence for Christian theologians and seers gold has always represented the image of truth — not truth itself, but an image of truth, a symbol of truth.
Gold was not taken for the foundation, but stone. For a foundation must be firm, while gold is soft. Faith is laid as the foundation of our salvation. Gold represents the further building upon the stone of faith. That is, whoever has faith in Christ firm as a stone, to him thereafter the truth of the faith is revealed — bright in purity like gold, and gentle in mercy like gold. For mercy is inseparable from truth, as it is written: “Mercy and truth have met” (cf. Ps. 85[84]:10). Truth is radiant and kindly, just as gold is shining and soft. Therefore the Apostle Paul says that on the stone there stands gold — which is to say: upon faith, truth (1 Cor. 3:12).
And that gold is only a symbol of truth and not truth itself is clear from the Law, which most strictly forbade bowing down to gold and making idols of gold (Exod. 32). That gold is only a symbol, and not truth itself, is seen further from John’s description of the heavenly city. In vision John saw the heavenly Jerusalem, of which he says: “The building of its wall was jasper; and the City was pure gold, like clear glass” (Rev. 21:18). Since that spiritual world cannot be of material substance, here “gold” does not denote ordinary gold but truth. And truth is pure and transparent on every side. For that reason the Seer says “like clear glass,” because he speaks of truth and not of ordinary gold, which is altogether unlike glass.
Faith is the foundation of life here on earth. In heaven faith is not needed; there one lives by sight, not by faith. Therefore ordinary stone — the symbol of faith — is not mentioned at all in St John’s heavenly visions. He saw the heavenly City with foundations other than stone. He names twelve precious stones as the foundations of the heavenly City: jasper, sapphire, chalcedony, emerald, sardonyx, sardius, chrysolite, beryl, topaz, chrysoprase, jacinth, and amethyst. These precious stones symbolize twelve powers or virtues, each shining with its own brilliance. The twelve gates of the City are twelve pearls, and “the streets of the city were pure gold, as it were transparent glass” (Rev. 21:19, 21). This is to say that in that world gold loses its value and is laid as the paving of streets, underfoot, because there truth is openly seen, and the symbolics of gold are no longer needed.
Salt is a symbol of the true Christian, who also preserves others. A soul well salted with Christ’s teaching does not succumb to corruption, and moreover helps its neighbors to stand and not decay. “You are the salt of the earth,” said our great Lord. This applies not only to the apostles and clergy but to all Christians in general. If Christianity were to lose its strength and become insipid, with what would the human race be salted? And what could then restrain it from corruption? If the soul has not within it the truth of Christ, it becomes unsalted, insipid — earthy and putrid — and together with the body turns into mere decay. Salt also signifies heavenly grace, in the words of blessed Theophylact, who says: “And that grace is salt, hear Paul: ‘Let your speech be always with grace, seasoned with salt’” (Theophylact, Commentary on Luke 14:34). And so, then, salt is the symbol of the Christian in the world and of grace in the Christian.
Plants as Symbols
For a tree to grow, it must be rooted in the earth. So too the soul must be rooted in the spiritual, heavenly realm, for that is its soil in which it takes root and from which it grows.
For a tree to flourish, it must be watered. So too the soul must be watered by the grace of the Holy Spirit if it is to be healthy and strong. St Anthony says: “Just as trees cannot grow if they are not watered by natural water, so the soul cannot grow if it does not drink in the delights of heaven. Only those souls grow which have received the Spirit and are drenched with heavenly sweetness.”
For a tree to bear fruit, it must have light and warmth from the sun. So too the soul must be illumined and warmed by God, the Sun of eternal righteousness. For only by the light and warmth that come from the living and life-giving God can the soul live, grow, and bear fruit.
The lily as a symbol of freedom from anxious care. “Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin” (Matt. 6:28). Yet they are so finely arrayed as even King Solomon never was in all his glory. Nilus of Sinai writes about the symbolism of the lily and says: “Of the perfect soul it is said that it is like a lily among thorns; this signifies the soul that lives without care in the midst of those who are anxious about many things” (Nilus of Sinai, On Avarice).
The olive as a symbol of gracious election. The Lord once chose the people of Israel as an olive tree among wild trees, that they might be His chosen people (Jer. 11:16). Elijah and Enoch are also called olive trees, who will appear as forerunners of Christ’s second coming. Both the Prophet Zechariah and St John foresaw them in vision as two olive trees standing before the throne of glory in heaven (Zech. 4:3; Rev. 11:4). As a tree that yields oil and as one of the longest-lived among earthly trees, the olive also symbolizes every grace-filled person who shines with mercy and truth from the Spirit of God and who by faith has rooted himself in eternal life. The Psalmist bears witness: “But I am like a green olive tree in the house of God; I trust in the mercy of God for ever and ever” (Ps. 52[51]:8).
Seed is a symbol of the word of God. “The field is the world,” says the Lord. “The good seed are the children of the kingdom; but the tares are the children of the evil one” (Matt. 13:37–38).
Wheat denotes the teaching of God, the teaching of Christ — the good seed in contrast to tares, which denote the devil’s seed. “While men slept, his enemy came and sowed tares among the wheat” (Matt. 13:25). Christians who keep within themselves the divine seed of Christ and tend it to the harvest will be saved; the careless, who cultivate chaff instead of wheat within themselves, will perish. St John the Forerunner also testified that God “will thoroughly cleanse his threshing floor, and gather his wheat into the garner; but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire.” Thus wheat also signifies true Christians who have kept within themselves the seed of God, while chaff signifies unbelieving sinners. The decay of the wheat-grain in the earth was cited by the Lord as an image of His death and resurrection, and at the same time as an image of the dying of the old and the birth of the new man in each of us (Jn. 12:24; 1 Cor. 15:36).
Grapes and thorns, figs and thistles are symbols of good and evil people. “Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? No; from the vine and the fig tree one gathers good fruit, but from thorns and thistles, evil fruit. Even so every good tree brings forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree brings forth evil fruit. A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. Every tree that does not bring forth good fruit is cut down and cast into the fire. Therefore by their fruits you shall know them” (Matt. 7:16–20). Of whom does the Lord speak here — of trees or of people? Clearly of people. Trees are taken only as symbols of human beings, whether good or evil.
The vine (stock) is a symbol of Christ, and the branches are the followers of Christ. “I am the vine, you are the branches,” said the Lord to His disciples. The vine is partly visible and partly hidden; so too the Son of God is partly known and partly unknown. A branch without the vine can neither grow nor bear fruit. Therefore He also said: “Without Me you can do nothing.” Good people draw the life-sap from Christ, are nourished by Him, and bear good fruit like healthy branches on the vine. But evil people cut themselves off from Christ and remain dry and fruitless like severed branches. Therefore the former will be preserved as fruitful branches, while the latter will be cast into the fire like dry branches (St John 15:1–6).
The mustard tree/seed is a symbol of the kingdom of heaven in the sense of its growth from small to great. “It is the least of all seeds; but when it is grown it is greater than the herbs and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in its branches” (Matt. 13:32). So the kingdom of heaven in a man’s soul grows greater than everything else that grows in the soul, and with its branches reaches into heaven, and the angels of God alight upon its boughs.
The palm and the cedar of Lebanon are symbols of the righteous. “The righteous shall flourish like the palm tree; he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon… They shall still bring forth fruit in old age; they shall be fat and flourishing (fresh and green)” (Ps. 92[91]:12, 14).
Basil and immortelle (helichrysum) — especially basil — are greatly loved among Orthodox Christians in the Balkans. They symbolize the righteous soul, which gives off a more heavenly fragrance the more the body ages and withers. For these two flowers smell more sweetly when they have withered and dried than when they are fresh. Basil is also used in the blessing of water; in that case it symbolizes the grace-filled fragrance of the higher world which, together with the power of the Cross, keeps the water from corruption.
Grass and flowers in general are symbols of the transience of bodily life and of outward human glory. The Apostle Peter writes: “All flesh is as grass, and all the glory of man as the flower of grass; the grass withers and its flower falls away” (1 Pet. 1:24; cf. Ps. 103[102]:15). According to the Psalmist, the fate of grass is the symbol of the fate of the ungodly: “When the wicked spring as the grass, and when all the workers of iniquity flourish; it is that they shall be destroyed for ever” (Ps. 92[91]:7). Again elsewhere he says: “Fret not yourself because of evildoers, neither be envious against those who work iniquity. For they shall soon be cut down like the grass, and wither as the green herb” (Ps. 37[36]:1–2). The righteous are like grass only with respect to the body; the lawless are in every respect like the passing grass.